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Introduction The Sjai; Manuscripts (with 2 facsimiles) Spelling of the Manuscripts. Appendices A. Words discussed in the Notes. B. Index of proper names occurring in the Sjair. C. A no te on maps. Abbrevations used VII PLATES I. Sombaopu Fort, Macassar (c. Map of Macassar (1693). Frontispiece. End-paper 8 9 FOREWORD The present work is based upon a thesis written for the Ph. D. examination of the University of London. As is usually,the case in such circumstances, the work stands on the shoulders of many people, some living and some dead. Among the living, I have benefitted most from the help and encouragement, most freely given, of the following scholars (listed in purely alphabetical order): Professor A. A. Cense, Professor D. G. E. Hall, Dr. C. Hooykaas, Dr. J. Noorduyn, Professor R. RooIvink and Dr. P. Voorhoeve. In addition, it is pleasant to acknowledge the assistance given me by the Libran (Mr. J. D. Pearson) and Deputy Librarian (Mr. R. J. Hoy) of the Scbool of Oriental and African Studies in the University of London; to successive Keepers of Oriental MSS. Dr. P. Voorhoeve and Dr. Th. Pigeaud) of the University of Leiden; and to tbe Librarian (Mr. W. J. Plumbe) of the University of Malaya in Kuala Lumpur. Finally, I am deeply - but in na way financially - indebted to tbe Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde and to tbe House of Martinus Nijboff, wbo have combined to publish a book that seeks veniam pro laude. C.S. Kuala Lumpur, 1961. INTRODUCTION THE SJAm In the text-books, the 17th century in Indonesian history is of ten referred to as the Dutch century and treated in tenns of the activities of the largest and best-organized of the European trading companies in the archipelago, the Dutch East India Company.1 This Europeancentric approach 2 (derived in part from a scarcity of easily available non-european sources) has inevitably tended to create an exaggerated impression of the part played by the VOC,3 and conversely, to obscure the part played by the great Indonesian Sultanates of Mataram, Bantam and Macassar, among whom the VOC was not sa much facile princeps, as primus inter pares. The VOC had, of course, made itself a power to he reckoned with in the east of the arehipelago as early as the first decade of the century, when it had established itself in the islands whose spices provided the Companys shareholders with sueh satisfying compensation for the hazards of speculation, and succeeding decades saw a small factory at Djakatra turn into the Batavia headquarters of a commercial empire stretching the length of the arehipelago. This empire was, to a considerable degree, based on a monopoly of the spice trade and was thus, Booner or later, bound to come into conflict with Macassar, a state which, like Holland, was just entering its golden age. Situated almost exactly half-way between Batavia and the Moluccas,4 1 Cf. Any form of independent trading in spices was, of course, a direct threat to the VOCs policy of monopoly and, given the temper of the two parties concerned - the VOC had men like Coen, who can politely he descrihed as ruthiess, while the Macassarese had the reputation of being the Haentjens van het Oosten (Cocks (of the walk) of the East) 8 - it required no gift of prophecy to forecast that sooner or later both sides would resort to war. The first of these wars came about in The VOC had set up a factory at Macassar as early as 1609 and was by no means pleased when, some four years later, the Sultan of Goa, anxious to play off the one European Company against the other, had given an even warmer welcome to its great rival, the English East India 5 It might be as weil here to c1ear up one or two points in connection with the name Macassar. At the time of the sjair, Macassar was the name given by foreigners (and not by the Macassarese themselves) to the area hetween the Garassi river and Sambung Djawa. In this area, the Sultan of Goa, the senior ruler of the twin-sultanates of Goa and Tallo, had his palace-cumcastie, at Sombaopu. The area, being easily the biggest and most important location in the state (far bigger than either the villages of Goa and Tallo) was considered (by foreigners) as the capitalof the state, which was also termed Macassar. As the senior rul er of this state, the Sultan of Goa, residing in his castie in the area, was of ten taken by foreigners to he th e (sole) ruler of the state, and termed the Sultan of Macassar or King of Macassar. By way of answer, the Sultan is reported to have made the magnificent reply: God created the land and the sea: the land he divided out amongst men, but the sea he gave to all. If you do so, you will he taking the bread out of our mouths - and I am not a rich King. One might perhaps have expected the Dutch to appreciate sentiments strikingly similar to those enunciated by their own eminent jurist only a few years earlier:11 instead - and the parallel with 1945 is by no means a distant one - they declared war. The war dragged on fairly uneventfully until 1637, when van Diemen, on his way back from pacifying South Ceram, had shown the fiag in some strength at Macassar and thereby persuaded the Sultan to sign a treaty by which Macassar agreed to recognise the VOCs interests in the Spice Islands. However, the spice trade provided the Macassarese - not only private traders there, but also, via customs duties, the Macassarese oligarchy 12 - with such a source of profit that it was not long hefore Macassar was once again functioning as the biggest independent spice market in the archipelago, and growing rich and powerful on the proceeds. So powerful indeed that it was able to give both moral and material assistance to the rebels against the VOC in South Ceram and Ambon. See also note to v.378a). Some idea of the extent of the taxes, imposts, douceurs, presents etc., required of foreign traders in Indonesian port kingdoms can be obtained from documents such as the Port Regulations given in the Adat Atjh (Drewes and Voorhoeve: AT, p in the awi text). SAIR PERANG MENGKASAR treaty was drawn up, but the satisfaction derived from it by the VOO may be gauged from the fact that in 1656 the Governor-General an.d Oouncil could write. The VOO at once prepared for war and in 1660 an expedition of 31 ships and 2600 men was put under the command of Johan van Dam and sent to Macassar (where the advanceguard had the satisfaction of defeating a fleet of 6 Portuguese ships found in the Macassar roads).
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